Strategies and Speech Tactics in Joe Biden's Political Discourse

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Abstract

рolitical discourse as a phenomenon in Russia emerged relatively recently. In the classical sense, discourse is one of the components of the semiotic process [1, p.488]. But, since, in our case, we are dealing with political discourse, the term political is endowed with appraisal, therefore, there are non-linguistic models in linguistic research. Political discourse in Russia is usually considered from two sides: from the position of the history of our country and from the position of the history of verbal art. Political discourse constructs its own world, in which there are specific actors (addresser, addressee), place, time, event and subsequently assessments. The politician, as the main participant in political discourse, uses a cunning speech mechanism, tries to influence the audience through speech, the opponent through the tactics of speech suggestion. In fact, political discourse, if we consider it as a process, is enclosed in the framework of such operations as "affirmation" and "negation". The fact that political speech is specific and loaded is incomparable to the fact that it is also in solidarity with those members of the political community who use the same language. Political discourse is spectacular, specific and theatrical in its presentation, so the use of only literary methods of its study becomes insufficient. Our article examines the strategies and tactics of speech behavior in political discourse used by Joe Biden in the CBS News special report "On Russia's Invasion of Ukraine". As a key strategy for analysis, we chose the strategy of self-presentation by O.N. Parshina, including tactics of identification, solidarity, opposition or distancing, as well as emphasis. In the course of the analysis, we also identified a discrediting strategy. We will also try to highlight the elements of totalitarian discourse in the specified text.

 

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INTRODUCTION

Any communication is not complete without language. It is the language that is the most important tool for influencing the audience. Recently, taking into account modern political realities, language fully manifests itself in political discourse, through the function of persuasion. It is difficult to find an area outside of politics where language could exercise the function of persuasion in such a clear way. Speaking about the political language, about the strategies and tactics used in it, it is impossible not to touch upon the topical issue of political discourse (PD). In the classical sense, discourse is one of the components of the semiotic process [1, p.488]. Those conditional semiotic models embedded in the discourse determine the nature of the communicative orientation.

As you know, language, as well as communication strategies, are the main elements of persuasion in speech. Speech influence is carried out through communicative strategies, which in turn realize the communicative intentions of the speaker.

Following Maslova, we understand political discourse as an area that includes certain tools of speech influence necessary to achieve a certain level of political power, as well as to keep it. Maslova considers various language tools of manipulation, such as a language game, which is carried out by changing the semantics of words or by choosing some lexemes for the names of certain phenomena [ 2, c.43-48].

OBJECT OF STUDY

Political discourse is specific, conflicting, theatrical, institutional, has a certain degree of ritual, has a specific rhetorical organization.Nevertheless, one thing remains unchanged: any political discourse has a bright persuasive character, which is based on one or another manipulative specificity, the main purpose of which is to have a certain speech impact on the addressee. According to E.I. Sheigal, political discourse is an instrument of political power[3, c.368].

Despite the abundance of definitions of discourse, as well as political discourse, there is still no single approach to the analysis of discourse itself, modern approaches seem to be very vague and heterogeneous.

The same is true of such interrelated concepts as strategy and tactics. Political discourse, as a strictly built system, requires the speaker to comply with a certain speech plan. In light of this, in the field of political discourse it is appropriate to use the terms tactics and strategy. According to A.P. Chudinov, both of these concepts can be attributed to the planning of speech activity, but the strategy involves planning in a more general form [4, p. 292]. In general, the purpose of the study of political discourse is to build a model of universals, within the framework of a particular strategy, which includes certain combinations, such as tactics.

By tactics, we mean the use of techniques, ways to achieve the goal, "the choice and sequence of speech actions, characterized by their task within the framework of the implemented communicative strategy" [4, p. 292].GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH

Insufficient development and consideration of strategies and tactics of political communication, the lack of a clear typology of strategies and tactics in political discourse proves that at the moment there are no uniform criteria for defining these concepts. The issue of strategies and tactics is currently relevant and is of great interest to researchers. Due to the lack of a clear typology, strategies of the same type may have a different set of tactics for researchers, or the same tactics may be applicable in two strategies. Thus, we have a similar set of tactics, in similar strategies. There is a constant narrowing or expansion of the very space of political discourse, due to the inconsistency in the relationship between tactics and strategy. The basis of the strategy, first of all, is the method of organizing speech behavior.

We believe that the classification proposed by O.N. Parshina, clearly demonstrates the relationship between tactics and strategies, and also reflects their types. The strategy, according to O.N. Parshina: "a certain direction of speech behavior in the interests of achieving the goal of communication" [5, p.232]. Thus, we are dealing with speech planning.

Also, according to O.N. Parshina, "from the point of view of speech impact, the strategy can only be considered through the analysis of tactics, since the strategy is a complex phenomenon, and tactics - aspect" [6, p. 71]. Thus, in order to analyze a strategy, it is necessary to carefully analyze the tactics of the chosen strategy.

RESEARCH METHODS AND RESULTS

In light of this, the classification of the strategy of self-presentation by O.N. Parshina, seems to us the most relevant, since tactics are carefully developed in it, and their relationship is also shown. According to O.N. Parshina, it is the strategy of self-presentation that allows you to influence a wide range of people. HE. Parshina identifies such and tactics that are involved in the implementation of the strategy of self-presentation, namely: the tactics of identification, solidarity, opposition / distancing, emphasis. This strategy and tactics will be analyzed by us on the material of the "Special Report" by US President Joe Biden on Russia's invasion of Ukraine https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gZ_-VpGrJDs

The choice of material for the study is due to the unstable political situation that has developed in the world in connection with the Russian operation in Ukraine, and is also motivated by the special attitude of the United States to this problem.

Thus, we will consider the strategy of self-presentation proposed by Parshina, through her tactics. Self-presentation as a strategy is relevant, first of all, because it builds a certain image for a politician and is implemented through tactics: identification, which consists in demonstrating a certain kind of institutionalization on the part of the addresser: we have been saying this all along (мы говорили об этом все время),we have been transparent with the world,we have shared declassified evidence about the Russian plans and cyber attacks so there can be no confusion or cover-up about that Putin was doing (мы были прозрачны с миром, мы делились рассекреченными доказательствами о российских планах и кибератаках, поэтому не может быть никакой путаницы или сокрытия того, что делал Путин),we stand up for freedom(мы выступаем за свободу),  If it did, the consequences for America would  be much worse (Если бы это произошло, последствия для Америки были бы намного хуже).

Thus, Joe Biden actively uses the tactics of identification in the "Special Report" and uses the pronoun 1 l in the amount of 36 units. pl. we are numbers, which demonstrates the position of the speaker as one with the people themselves. We also note the use of the names USA 9 times, America 3 times, which indicates the ethnicity of the addressee.

solidarity tactics. In its implementation, the possessive pronouns ours, ours, ours, which in the amount of 15 units are presented in the report, take an active part. This tactic is a kind of identification tactic and comes down to the desire to create common views and interests between the sender and the addressee: He rejected every good- faith effort the United States and our allies and partners made to address mutual concern means (Он отверг все добросовестные усилия Соединенных Штатов и наших союзников и партнеров по устранению взаимных проблем, Between our actions and those of our allies and partners, we estimate will cut off more than half of the high-tech imports from Russia (Наши действия и действия наших союзников и партнеров, по нашим оценкам, прекратят более половины импорта высоких технологий из России,We will be there to bring together the leaders of 30 allied nations and close partners to affirm our solidarity and to map out the next steps we will take to further strengthen all aspects of our alliance(Мы будем там, чтобы собрать вместе лидеров 30 союзных стран и близких партнеров, чтобы подтвердить нашу солидарность и наметить следующие шаги, которые мы предпримем для дальнейшего укрепления всех аспектов нашего союза), This betrays a sinister vision for a future of our world (Это выдает зловещее видение будущего нашего мира).

В «Специальном отчете» Джо Байден намерено пытается соединить тактику солидаризации и отождествления в одном предложение. Некоторые из них:We will be there to bring to get her the leaders of 30 allied nations and close partners to affirm our solidarity and to map out the next steps we will take to further strengthen all aspects of our alliance (Мы будем там, чтобы собрать вместе лидеров 30 союзных стран и близких партнеров, чтобы подтвердить нашу солидарность и наметить следующие шаги, которые мы предпримем для дальнейшего укрепления всех аспектов нашего союза), We probably see the impact of our actions on the ruble (Вероятно, мы видим влияние наших действий на курс рубля), In addition to the economic penalties we are imposing, we are also taking steps to defend our nato allies, particularly in the east (В дополнение к экономическим санкциям, которые мы налагаем, мы также предпринимаем шаги для защиты наших союзников по НАТО, особенно на востоке).

The sender uses the lexeme allies 12 times and partners 6 times, and once uses the phrase close partners. The frequency of use of such vocabulary gives the speech the character of unity between the speaker and the side of the allies in sufficient numbers. Biden also tries to assure the addressee of the correct choice of political position in relation to the opponent.

Tactics of opposition or distancing. This tactic demonstrates a vivid opposition of "friend or foe". "Own" is the one who supports democratic freedoms, i.e. America, and "alien" is the one who is the aggressor, i.e. Russia: It is a vision the united states and freedom loving nations everywhere will oppose with every tool of our considerable power (Это видение, которому Соединенные Штаты и свободолюбивые нации во всем мире будут противостоять всеми средствами нашей значительной силы), As I made crystal clear, the united states will defend every inch of nato territory with the full force of American power (Как я ясно дал понять, Соединенные Штаты будут защищать каждый дюйм территории НАТО, используя всю мощь Америки), In the past week we have seen shelling increase in the dumb boss, the region in eastern Ukraine controlled by Russian backed separatism (На прошлой неделе мы стали свидетелями стремительного роста тупого босса, региона на востоке Украины, контролируемого поддерживаемым Россией сепаратизмом), It he early days of this conflict, Russian propaganda will keep trying to hide the truth and claim success for its military operation against a made up threat (В первые дни этого конфликта российская пропаганда будет пытаться скрыть правду и заявить об успехе своей военной операции против выдуманной угрозы), In the history, the choice to make a totally unjustifiable war on Ukraine will have left Russia weaker and the rest of the world stronger (В истории решение развязать абсолютно неоправданную войну с Украиной сделало Россию слабее, а остальной мирсильнее), Liberty, democracy, human dignity, these are the forces far more powerful than fear and oppression (Свобода, демократия, человеческое достоинство — силы гораздо более могущественные, чем страх и угнетение).

В своем сообщении Байден многократно подчеркивает величие Америки как величайшего борца за свободу угнетенных наций. Оратор намеренно применяет мелиоративы: good- faith effort the United States (добросовестные усилия Соединенных Штатов), the greatest military alliance in the history of the world. Nato (величайшего военного союза в истории мира. НАТО), We stand up for freedom (Мы выступаем за свободу), the united states and freedom loving nations (Соединенные Штаты и свободолюбивые нации), а также пейоративы: We will keep up this drumbeat (Мы продолжим этот барабанный бой), against corrupt billionaires  (Против коррумпированных миллиардеров), America stands up to bullies (Америка противостоит хулиганам).

Россия же в противовес выступает агрессором во главе с В.В. Путиным, Байден активно применяет лексику с пейоративным значением: a staged political theatre in Moscow, outlandish and baseless claims (в Москве разыгранный политический театр, диковинные и безосновательные заявления), aggression cannot go on unanswered (агрессия не может оставаться без ответа), Russian propaganda (российская пропаганда), Putin has committed an assault (Путин совершил посягательство), They cannot be extinguished by tyrants like putin and his armies (Они не могут быть погашены тиранами, такими как Путин и его армия). 

В данной тактике можно обнаружить и элементы стратегии дискредитации именно Президента РФ. Оратор намеренно акцентирует внимание как на самом президенте, так и  возлагает на него ответственность  за  происходящее в Украине. Оратор активно употребляет дисфемизмы: bullies (хулиганы), separatism (сепаратизмом), pariah (изгой), tyrants (тираны), aggressor (агрессор), assault (посягательство), fear (страх), oppression(угнетение); дерогативы Russian propaganda (российская пропаганда), political theatre (политический театр), The Russia covernmet (Российская тайная служба). Анализируя стратегию дискредитации в «Специальном сообщении» можно отметить, характерные черты инвектива.

В «Специальном сообщении» Джо Байдена можно усмотреть, некоторые черты «тоталитаристского» дискурса. По мнению Х. Медеры (цит. по [7, с.78]) это:

- «ораторство»: доминирует декламаторский стиль воззвания, что характерно для Байдена. Президент США в своей речи использует официально - деловой стиль с небольшими элементами разговорного стиля;

- пропагандистский триумфализм. Байден абсолютно убежден, что политика - свободы восторжествует (make no mistake, freedom will prevail…,не ошибитесь, свобода восторжествует);

-  идеологизация всего, о чем говорится, расширительное употребление понятий, в ущерб логике (……but to defend our nato allies and reassure those allies in the east, …… а защищать наших союзников по НАТО и успокаивать этих союзников на востоке, the united states will defend every inch of nato territory with the full force of American power, Соединенные Штаты будут защищать каждый дюйм территории НАТО, используя всю мощь Америки);

- лозунговость, пристрастие к заклинаниям (God bless the people and may god  protect our troops, Да благословит Бог людей и пусть Бог защитит наши войска);

- агитаторский задор (There is no doubt, no doubt that …..,  Нет сомнений, нет сомнений в том, что…);

- превалирование «Сверх-Я» ( Today I am authorizing additional strong sanctions and new limitations on what can  be exported to Russia. Сегодня я санкционирую дополнительные жесткие санкции и новые ограничения на то, что можно экспортировать в Россию, I will strike a blow for them, Я нанесу им удар, …. action, I authorize deployment of ground…,…. я санкционирую развертывание……, Now I am authorizing additional use force, Теперь я разрешаю развертывание дополнительных силовых, I assured…. Я заверил…..,);

-  претензия на абсолютную истину (We stand up for freedom, Мы выступаем за свободу, America stands up to bullies, Америка противостоит хулиганам).

Указанные  свойства характеризуют полемичность, которая, так присуща политическому  дискурсу. Проявления полемичности очевидны, благодаря определенному выбору и подбору слов.

В «Специальном сообщении» оратор допускает неслучайную последовательность высказываний, которые имеют яркий интонационный рисунок «по нарастающей» в сторону негативного содержания, и достигает своего топа высказыванием строго негативного характера: Today*s actions have now sanctioned Russian banks( Сегодняшние действия привели к санкциям против российских банков), we have cut off their larges bank (Мы отрезали их крупнейший банк), we are also blocking four more major banks (мы также блокируем еще четыре крупных банка), we are preparing to do more (мы готовимся сделать больше). Такой  прием характеризует данную политическую ситуацию, как необратимую и вынужденную.

О.Н. Паршина  выделяет еще одну особую тактику в политическом дискурсе, а именно тактика акцентирования. Эта тактика применяется говорящим в случае его намерения выразить или подчеркнуть свою позицию в речи или выразить свое личное отношение. По тому или иному вопросу. Джо Байден, согласно «Специального отчета»  активно ведет повествование от первого лица применяя эту тактику: Today I amauthorizing additional strong sanctions and new limitations on what can be exported to Russia(Сегодня я санкционирую дополнительные жесткие санкции и новые ограничения на то, что можно экспортировать в Россию), I want to be clear, the United States is not doing this alone (Я хочу внести ясность: Соединенные Штаты делают это не в одиночку), I just spoke with the G7 leaders this morning, and we are in full in total agreement (Я только что разговаривал с лидерами G7 сегодня утром, и мы полностью согласны).

В количестве 15  раз Джо Байден выражает свою позицию в «Специальном отчете» от своего лица. Тактика акцентировании интересна тем, что содержательная сторона высказывания менее важна в сравнении с личной позиции говорящего.

CONCLUSION

Thus, Joe Biden in the "Special Report" uses various communication strategies and tactics, we include the strategy of self-presentation of the tactics of identification, solidarity, opposition or distancing, emphasizing and the strategy of discrediting, we also found some features of the "totalitarian" discourse. These strategies and tactics are aimed at the listener in order to convince the listener of the correctness of their position. The speaker actively uses both the tactics of self-presentation and the tactics of discrediting, while none of these tactics is presented by the speaker in its pure form. For example, in the strategy of self-presentation, Biden actively uses the tactics of emphasizing, although this tactic is not the leading one in this strategy. In some places you can find several tactics used in one sentence.

Biden's speech in the "Special Report" is well structured and aims to show a clear opposition between the views of the United States and Russia, while the emphasis is shifted strictly towards rejection of the opponent's position i.e. Russia, which is facilitated by the active use of pejorative vocabulary by the speaker.

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About the authors

Elizaveta Shuliak

Университет Лобачевского

Author for correspondence.
Email: l.shulyak@mail.ru

студентка 1 курса РКИ 

Russian Federation, Нижний Новгород пр. Гагарина 23

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